Reading list

Deceptive patterns are a rapidly growing area of research, particularly in Human Computer Interaction (HCI) and Law.

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Researchers analyzed Dark Patterns in 240 apps and ran an experiment with 589 users on how they perceive Dark Patterns. They found 95% of the apps contained Dark Patterns and that most users do not recognize Dark Patterns unless informed beforehand.

Primary reading
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Linda Di Geronimo, Larissa Braz, Enrico Fregnan, Fabio Palomba, and Alberto Bacchelli
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May 25, 2020

An interesting counterpoint to the many stories of organisations making it hard for consumers to cancel their subscriptions. Here, Netflix does the opposite and automatically cancels premium subscriptions on inactive accounts.

Primary reading
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Louis Chilton
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May 23, 2020

This paper traces the origins of dark patterns, highlights contemporary issues, and describes where they might be heading in the future. It offers recommendations for designers to steer clear of these patterns.

Primary reading
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Arvind Narayanan, Arunesh Mathur, Marshini Chetty, and Mihir Kshirsagar
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May 17, 2020

Policy brief with suggestions for how to regulate dark patterns.

Primary reading
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Stiftung Neue Verantwortung
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May 13, 2020

"We show that digital manipulation erodes users’ ability to act rationally, which empowers platforms to extract wealth and build market power without doing so on the merits. [...] our
research asserts that antitrust enforcement should go further in promoting decisional privacy."

Law
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Gregory Day and Abbey Stemler
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May 11, 2020

New consent management platforms (CMPs) have been introduced to the web to conform with the EU's General Data Protection Regulation, particularly its requirements for consent when companies collect and process users' personal data.

Primary reading
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Midas Nouwens, Ilaria Liccardi, Michael Veale, David Karger, Lalana Kagel
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April 1, 2020

A book featuring research on human and automated methods to deter the spread of misinformation online, such as legal or policy changes, information literacy workshops, and algorithms that can detect fake news dissemination patterns in social media.

Background reading
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Dalkir, Kimiz; Katz, Rebecca
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February 28, 2020

"Designers face the same challenges as everyone else in the complex conditions of contemporary cultural life-choices about consumption, waste, exploitation, ecological damage, and political problems built into the supply chains on which the global systems of inequity currently balance precariously. But designers face the additional dilemma that their paid work is often entangled with promoting the same systems such critical approaches seek to redress: how to reconcile this contradiction, among others, in seeking to chart an ethical course of action while still functioning effectively in the world."

Background reading
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Scherling, Laura; DeRose, Andrew
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February 20, 2020

Business facing guidelines by the Dutch Consumers and Markets Authority showing what manipulative practices to avoid.

Primary reading
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Authority for Consumers and Markets
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February 11, 2020

"After reviewing 200 of the top shopping sites, including Amazon, eBay and Macys.com, a study by the University of Michigan’s School of Information found that all the sites had an average of 19 features that could encourage impulse buying, such as limited-time discounts and wording that made an item seem like it was almost out of stock.

News and press
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Joseph Pisani
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January 22, 2020

The Subcommittee on Consumer Protection and Commerce of the Committee on Energy and Commerce held a hearing entitled, “Americans at Risk: Manipulation and Deception in the Digital Age.” Witnesses included Monika Bickert, Joan Donovan, Ph.D., Tristan Harris and Justin (Gus) Hurwitz.

Primary reading
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Hurwitz, Justin
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January 8, 2020

"Sludge" is an alternative term for Dark Patterns. In this paper, Cass Sunstein argues that institutions should conduct Sludge Audits to catalogue the costs of sludge, because it can hurt the most vulnerable members of society.

Primary reading
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SUNSTEIN, C.A.S.S. R.
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January 6, 2020

Researchers analyzed 300 data collection consent notices from news outlets to ensure compliance with GDPR. The analysis uncovered a variety of dark patterns that circumvent the intent of GDPR by design.

Primary reading
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Soe, Nordberg, Guribye & Slavkovik
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January 1, 2020

In Design for Cognitive Bias, David Dylan Thomas lays bare the irrational forces that shape our everyday decisions and, inevitably, inform the experiences we craft. Once we grasp the logic powering these forces, we stand a fighting chance of confronting them, tempering them, and even harnessing them for good.

Background reading
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David Dylan Thomas
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January 1, 2020

"If you’ve wondered whether there were actually 30 people trying to book the same flight as you, you’re not alone. As Chris Baraniuk finds, the numbers may not be all they seem."

News and press
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Chris Baraniuk
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December 11, 2019

"Many e-commerce offers are pushed with fake notifications, bogus countdown timers and other misleading tactics"

News and press
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Jo Craven McGinty
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November 22, 2019

"Members of Princeton’s Web Transparency & Accountability Project (WebTAP) used automated web-crawling programs to assemble a list of the dark patterns the programs could see in a page’s text. Then they classified the dark patterns’ methods systematically.

News and press
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Bennett McIntosh ’16
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November 13, 2019

A study of dark patterns in cookie consent dialogues.

Primary reading
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Christine Utz, Martin Degeling, Sascha Fahl, Florian Schaub, Thorsten Holz
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November 11, 2019

"We present automated techniques that enable experts to identify dark patterns on a large set of websites. Using these techniques, we study shopping websites, which often use dark patterns to influence users into making more purchases or disclosing more information than they would otherwise. Analyzing ∼53K product pages from ∼11K shopping websites, we discover 1,818 dark pattern instances, together representing 15 types and 7 broader categories. We examine these dark patterns for deceptive practices, and find 183 websites that engage in such practices."

Primary reading
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Mathur, Arunesh; Acar, Gunes; Friedman, Michael J.; Lucherini, Elena; Mayer, Jonathan; Chetty, Marshini; Narayanan, Arvind
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November 1, 2019

Dark patterns, present across platforms and devices, work to undermine consumer choice and autonomy — but we currently have no framework for evaluating them. How might we evaluate these deceptive design interfaces to better support consumer empowerment?

Primary reading
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Katie McInnis
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October 15, 2019

Written by Cambridge Analytica Whistleblower Christopher Wylie, this book is a detailed account of the way modern marketing technologies were applied in targeted disinformation propaganda campaigns, including those that gave us Trump and Brexit.

Primary reading
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Christopher Wylie
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October 8, 2019

Comparative study on the privacy practices of Amazon, Spotify and Netflix in the EU and the US. Also looks at the use of dark patterns.

Background reading
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Trans Atlantic Consumer Dialogue
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October 1, 2019

DETOUR was a bi-partisan bill that aimed to curb manipulative dark pattern behavior by prohibiting the largest online platforms (those with over 100 million monthly active users) from relying on user interfaces that intentionally impair user autonomy, decision-making, or choice.

Law
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Warner, Mark R.
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September 4, 2019

"Senators Mark Warner (D-Virginia) and Deb Fischer (R-Nebraska) have introduced legislation to ban so-called “dark patterns” tactics designed to trick users..."

Law
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Tom McKay
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September 4, 2019

Interesting case study from the UK's Behavioural Insights team (aka "nudge unit"). NOT a dark pattern, obviously! But very relevant because the same methodology and techniques are used to create and optimise dark patterns.

Background reading
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September 1, 2019

This essay shows how cognitive biases and dark pattern are used to manipulate people into disclosing private information. It then explains how current law allows this to continue and proposes a new approach to reign in the phenomenon.

Primary reading
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Waldman, Ari Ezra
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August 25, 2019

"Online shopping turns your brain against you, but you can fight back."

News and press
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Sidney Fussell
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August 2, 2019

Tom Scott interviews Harry Brignull about Dark Patterns.

Primary reading
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Tom Scott
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July 9, 2019

"We show that many services that claim compliance today do not have clear and concise privacy policies. We identify several points in the privacy policies which potentially indicate non-compliance; we term these GDPR vulnerabilities. We identify GDPR vulnerabilities in ten cloud services. Based on our analysis, we propose seven best practices for crafting GDPR privacy policies."

Primary reading
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Mohan, Jayashree; Wasserman, Melissa; Chidambaram, Vijay
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June 28, 2019

"Gain product design foundations by bringing design processes to light, especially for growing organizations with evolving design systems. Fast-track design work by providing practical examples of patterns for a variety of real-world purposes. Level up the breadth of your skills and understanding by illuminating user experience design concepts, such as usability, accessibility, microcopy, motion design, and information architecture."

Background reading
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MacDonald, Diana
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June 27, 2019

After an FTC workshop about the astronomical fees added on to most concert tickets, it is fairly clear that nothing is being done.

Primary reading
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Kaitlyn Tiffany
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June 12, 2019

A well written introductory article about Dark Patterns. Also provides 10 guidelines for designers to help steer their company away from deceptive practices.

Primary reading
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Fabricio Teixeira & Caio Braga
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May 23, 2019

Article on how dark patterns in cookie banners are not legally valid consent mechanisms under the GDPR.

Background reading
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Privacy International
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May 21, 2019

Researchers analyzed 1002 posts from the subreddit '/r/assholedesign' to identify the types of artifact being shared and the interaction purposes that were perceived to be manipulative or unethical.

Primary reading
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Chivukula, Shruthi Sai; Watkins, Chris; McKay, Lucca; Gray, Colin M.
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May 1, 2019

"my prediction for 2019 - let’s do this like a TV show is this is the year where dark patterns really becomes the kind of thing that we’re really talking a lot about." - Paul Ohm

Law
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Author unknown
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April 9, 2019

"Sens. Mark Warner (D-VA) and Deb Fischer (R-NE) introduced a bill that would prohibit large internet platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Google from using deceptive design tricks as methods to trick users into handing over their personal data."

News and press
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Makena Kelly
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April 9, 2019

"Web interfaces have become quite a character, haven’t they? Self-indulgent, impolite, disrespectful and obsessed with user’s data. In this series of articles, we’re looking into privacy UX patterns to make our interfaces better without leaving conversion considerations behind."

Primary reading
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Vitaly Friedman
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April 4, 2019

"...a subset of companies purposely make callers jump through hoops with the hope that they’ll simply give up. When this happens, the company saves money on redress costs." (Article summarising the paper "Why Customer Service Frustrates Consumers: Using a Tiered Organizational Structure to Exploit Hassle Costs")

Primary reading
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Anthony Dukes and Yi Zhu
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February 28, 2019

Consumer Reports guide to spotting dark patterns.

Primary reading
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Thomas Germain
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January 30, 2019

"A chat about the dark pattern of “Confirm shaming”, which guilts the user into opting into something. Often seen on an exit intent popup, or a registration form, the words that course you into taking an action that benefits the website owner is getting more extreme."

News and press
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Unusable podcast
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January 20, 2019

From dark patterns to data protection: the influence of ux/ui design on user empowerment. This report highlights the ability to use UX as a "power tool" to establish a platform's position.

Primary reading
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Gwendal Le Grand
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January 1, 2019

Academic paper on online manipulation and its harms to individuals and social institutions.

Background reading
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Daniel Susser, Beate Roessler, Helen Nissenbaum
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December 23, 2018

"Many Customer Service Organizations (CSOs) reflect a tiered, or multi-level, organizational structure, which we argue imposes hassle costs for dissatisfied customers seeking high levels of redress. [...] We argue that the tiered structure helps the firm to control redress costs..."

Primary reading
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Anthony Dukes and Yi Zhu
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December 7, 2018

A measurement study of showing how the majority (90%) of social media influencers do not disclose their relationships with advertisers to their audience.

Primary reading
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Arunesh Mathur, Arvind Narayanan, Marshini Chetty
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November 1, 2018

A serious book on the topic of technology and ethics, widely considered a "must read".

Primary reading
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Bowles, Cennydd
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September 25, 2018

Richard Thaler argues that "negative nudging" should be called "sludging".

Background reading
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Richard Thaler
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August 3, 2018

"To tame the, sometimes, harmful power of enormous platforms, we need to reconsider the mathematics of regulation. The law tends to treat the growth of a company linearly, while the power and harm of online activity increases at a much faster rate. We need to scale up the mathematics of regulation to deal with many of the problems of massive digital platforms."

Law
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Paul Ohm
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July 1, 2018

Researchers interviewed student UX designers while they carried out a design task. They found the designers had sensitivity towards user values, but often contradicted these values through dark intentions to persuade users, thereby achieving stakeholder goals.

Primary reading
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Chivukula, Shruthi Sai; Brier, Jason; Gray, Colin M.
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May 1, 2018

This short paper described conversations on Twitter using the hashtag #darkpatterns. The authors found that UX practitioners were most likely to share tweets with this hashtag, and that a majority of tweets either mentioned an artifact or “shames” an organization that engages in manipulative UX practices.

Primary reading
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Fansher, Madison, Chivukula, Shruthi Sai and Gray, Colin M.
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April 21, 2018

Every day, Internet users interact with technologies designed to undermine their privacy. [...] In Privacy’s Blueprint, Woodrow Hartzog pushes back against this state of affairs, arguing that the law should require software and hardware makers to respect privacy in the design of their products."

Primary reading
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Hartzog, Woodrow
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April 9, 2018

Academic analysis of different forms of dark patterns.

Primary reading
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Colin M. Gray, Yubo Kou, Bryan Battles, Joseph Hoggatt, Austin Toombs
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April 1, 2018

"As designers and developers, we have an obligation to build experiences that are better than the norm. This article explains how unethical design happens, and how to do ethical design through a set of best practices.

Primary reading
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Trine Falbe
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March 16, 2018

You didn’t fill up the rental car with gas? Gotcha! Gas costs $7 a gallon here. Your bank balance fell to $999.99 for one day? Gotcha! That’ll be $12. You miss one payment on that 18-month same-as-cash loan? Gotcha! That’ll be $512 extra. You’re one day late on that electric bill? Gotcha! All your credit cards now have a 29.99% interest rate.

Primary reading
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Bob Sullivan
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January 12, 2018

The 2017 Nobel Prize was awarded to Richard H. Thaler "for his contributions to behavioural economics", integrating economics with psychology. Behavioural economics is widely considered to be a useful framework with which to consider Dark Patterns.

News and press
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Author unknown
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October 9, 2017
No items found.
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September 11, 2017

A detailed introductory textbook on dark patterns and how to avoid them.

Primary reading
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Trine Falbe, Kim Andersen & Martin Michael Frederiksen
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August 1, 2017

"Cross-disciplinary convergences show the importance of strategic design in building online experiences which can speak volumes about your company and drive - or totally blow up - sales and brand reputation."

Primary reading
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Podestà, Silvia
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June 26, 2017

Growth teams are often responsible for implementing Dark Patterns. This book gives an insight into how they think. Most if not all of their methods can be used in a perfectly benign manner.

Background reading
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Ellis, Sean; Brown, Morgan
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April 25, 2017

"How users attend to information on a page depends on their tasks and goals, as confirmed by new eyetracking research. Good design promotes efficient scanning. In usability studies, (biased) task formulation may tip users to discover features."

Background reading
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Pernice, Kara
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March 19, 2017

"We discuss some examples as well as the ethics behind implementing them and ask if “light patterns” exist. We talk about how dark patterns go beyond the web and into service design. Should we avoid using dark patterns in our designs? Well, we think yes – so in that case, how?"

Primary reading
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Per Axbom and James Royal-Lawson
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February 3, 2017

The American Psychological Association provides its members with these strict Ethical Principles, and a Code of Conduct.

Background reading
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Author unknown
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January 1, 2017

"This year, it felt like nearly every app and product had embraced some form of dark pattern. Users tweeted about seeing them on Skype, Facebook, Amazon, Uber, Office Depot, even America’s Test Kitchen, and yes, LinkedIn–truly a dark pattern early adopter."

News and press
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Kelsey Campbell-Dollaghan
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December 21, 2016

Many Customer Service Organizations (CSOs) reflect a tiered, or multi-level, organizational structure, which we argue imposes hassle costs for dissatisfied customers seeking high levels of redress.

Primary reading
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September 3, 2016

A diagram of over 200 Cognitive Biases, grouped by theme.

Background reading
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Benson, Buster; Manoogian, John
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September 1, 2016

"It happens to the best of us. After looking closely at a bank statement or cable bill, suddenly a small, unrecognizable charge appears. Fine print sleuthing soon provides the answer—somehow, you accidentally signed up for a service. Whether it was an unnoticed pre-marked checkbox or an offhanded verbal agreement at the end of a long phone call, now a charge arrives each month because naturally the promotion has ended. If the possibility of a refund exists, it’ll be found at the end of 45 minutes of holding music or a week’s worth of angry e-mails."

Primary reading
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Yael Grauer
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July 28, 2016

Harry Brignull, a user-experience consultant in Britain who helps websites and apps develop consumer-friendly features, has a professional bone to pick with sites that seem to maneuver people into signing up for services they might not actually want

News and press
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Natasha Singer
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May 15, 2016

"Bad design is everywhere, and its cost is much higher than we think. In this thought-provoking book, authors Jonathan Shariat and Cynthia Savard Saucier explain how poorly designed products can anger, sadden, exclude, and even kill people who use them. The designers responsible certainly didn’t intend harm, so what can you do to avoid making similar mistakes?"

Background reading
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Shariat, Jonathan; Savard Saucier, Cynthia
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April 25, 2016

The FTC's enforcement policy statement regarding
advertising and promotional messages that are presented as non-commercial content.

Law
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Author unknown
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April 18, 2016
Primary reading
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Bösch, C., Erb, B., Kargl, F., Kopp, H., & Pfattheicher, S
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February 29, 2016

This book is controversial in that it takes BJ Fogg's psychological model and applies it a new model that facilitates addiction (aka getting "hooked").

Background reading
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Eyal, Nir
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November 4, 2014

"In Technocreep, Dr. Keenan explores some of the most troublesome privacy-invasive scenarios encountered on the web and offers users a number of excellent, practical ideas on how best to protect their privacy and identity online."

Background reading
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Keenan, Thomas
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August 1, 2014

"While interest in proxemic interactions has increased over the last few years, it also has a dark side: knowledge of proxemics may (and likely will) be easily exploited to the detriment of the user. In this paper, we offer a critical perspective on proxemic interactions in the form of dark patterns: ways proxemic interactions can be misused."

Primary reading
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Greenberg, Saul; Boring, Sebastian; Vermeulen, Jo; Dostal, Jakub
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June 21, 2014

Proxemic sensing devices are things like smart billboards that respond to the behaviour and characteristics of the people around them. In this research paper, the authors explore the risks of Dark Patterns in this new type of technology.

Primary reading
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Boring, Sebastian; Greenberg, Saul; Vermeulen, Jo; Dostal, Jakub; Marquardt, Nicolai
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June 21, 2014

"When you create an app, a website, or a game, how do you get users, and perhaps more importantly, how do you keep them? Irresistible Apps explains exactly how to do this using a library of 27 motivational design patterns and real-world examples of how they work."

Background reading
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Lewis, Christopher Francis
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March 13, 2014

"The Authority has also considered unfair, cumbersome and misleading, the mechanism imposed to consumers in order to select the no-purchase option of the travel insurance policy: in the Ryanair booking process it is necessary to go through the window of Country of Residence and select the option “refuse insurance”, positioned – in the Italian website - between Netherlands and Norway."

Law
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Agcm
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February 17, 2014

"Since Don’t Make Me Think was first published in 2000, hundreds of thousands of Web designers and developers have relied on usability guru Steve Krug’s guide to help them understand the principles of intuitive navigation and information design. Witty, commonsensical, and eminently practical, it’s one of the best-loved and most recommended books on the subject."

Background reading
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Krug, Steve
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January 9, 2014

Ever had a frustrating experience trying to find something on a website? You probably blamed yourself, but Harry Brignull says the real culprit is "dark patterns" - dirty tricks of web design.

Primary reading
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Nora Young
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November 15, 2013

"Approaching persuasive design from the dark side, this book melds psychology, marketing, and design concepts to show why we’re susceptible to certain persuasive techniques."

Primary reading
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Nodder, Chris
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July 26, 2013

"Fatigue can have a major impact on an individual's performance and well-being, yet is poorly understood, even within the scientific community. There is no developed theory of its origins or functions, and different types of fatigue (mental, physical, sleepiness) are routinely confused. In the first book dedicated to the systematic treatment of fatigue for over sixty years, Robert Hockey examines its many aspects - social history, neuroscience, energetics, exercise physiology, sleep and clinical implications..."

Background reading
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Hockey, Robert
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June 1, 2013

The authors develop the concept of dark design patterns in games, present examples of such patterns, explore some of the subtleties involved in identifying them, and provide questions that can be asked to help guide in the specification and identification of future Dark Patterns.

Primary reading
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Zagal, J. P., Björk, S., & Lewis, C
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May 14, 2013

A series of articles exploring the psychology of persuasion online.

Primary reading
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Gawley, Kyle
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April 5, 2013

“You would go to Reddit in the early days, the first couple of months and there’d be tons of … fake users,” Huffman says [...] “Social websites require a little bit of magic to work”

Background reading
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Kevin Moris
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July 19, 2012

One of the original articles written about Dark Patterns in 2011.

Primary reading
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Harry Brignull
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November 1, 2011

The blog post that started it all - in which Harry Brignull introduces the concept of Dark Patterns and asks for input from the design community.

Primary reading
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Harry Brignull
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July 8, 2010

This paper provides a taxonomy of dark patterns (though they do not use the term) and an analysis of their impact on users. Analysis is based on primary research including a review of thousands of web sites and three surveys.

Primary reading
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Conti, Gregory; Sobiesk, Edward
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April 26, 2010

"Two experiments provided empirical support for the scarcity bias, that is, when the subjective value of a good increases due to the mere fact that it is scarce."

Background reading
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Mittone, Luigi; Savadori, Lucia
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June 9, 2009

A classic and highly readable book on Behavioural Economics by Dan Ariely. Helped inspire the concept of "Dark Patterns".

Background reading
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Ariely, Dan
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March 5, 2009

A book by Nobel Prize winner Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein. It draws on research in psychology and behavioral economics to defend libertarian paternalism and active engineering of choice architecture.

Background reading
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Thaler, Richard H.; Sunstein, Cass R.
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April 8, 2008

"The findings in this 412-page report are the culmination of three large-scale eyetracking studies spanning 13 years, involving over 500 participants and more than 750 hours of testing session time."

Background reading
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Nielsen, Jakob; Norman, D. A.; Pernice, Kara; Whitenton, Kathryn; Nielsen, Jakob
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January 1, 2006

"The well-documented shortage of donated organs suggests that greater effort should be made to increase the number of individuals who decide to become potential donors. We examine the role of one factor: the no-action default for agreement. We first argue that such decisions are constructed in response to the question, and therefore influenced by the form of the question. We then describe research that shows that presumed consent increases agreement to be a donor, and compare countries with opt-in (explicit consent) and opt-out (presumed consent) defaults. Our analysis shows that opt-in countries have much higher rates of apparent agreement with donation, and a statistically significant higher rate of donations, even with appropriate statistical controls. We close by discussing the costs and benefits associated with both defaults as well as mandated choice.:

Primary reading
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Johnson, Eric J.; Goldstein, Daniel G.
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November 27, 2004

The CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 established the United States' first national standards for the sending of commercial e-mail. It is enforced by the FTC. It contains rules against dark patterns, e.g. a visible and operable unsubscribe mechanism must be present in all marketing emails.

Law
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Author unknown
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December 16, 2003

"The article discusses how should policy-makers choose defaults regarding organ donors. First, consider that every policy must have a no-action default, and defaults impose physical, cognitive, and, in the case of donation, emotional costs on those who must change their status. Second, note that defaults can lead to two kinds of misclassification, willing donors who are not identified or people who become donors against their wishes. Changes in defaults could increase donations in the United States of additional thousands of donors a year. Because each donor can be used for about three transplants, the consequences are substantial in lives saved."

Primary reading
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Johnson, Eric J.; Goldstein, Daniel
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November 21, 2003

"Differences in opt-in and opt-out responses are an important element of the current public debate concerning on-line privacy and more generally for permission marketing. We explored the issue empirically. Using two on-line experiments we show that the default has a major role in determining revealed preferences for further contact with a Web site. We then explore the origins of these differences showing that both framing and defaults have separate and additive effects in affecting the construction of preferences."

Primary reading
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Johnson, Eric J.; Bellman, Steven; Lohse, Gerald L.
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February 1, 2002

The authors contend that there are no unambiguous instances of the sunk cost (aka concorde) fallacy in lower animals. They also find that young children, when placed in an equivalent economic situation, exhibit more normatively correct behaviour than do adults.

Background reading
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Arkes, Hal R.; Ayton, Peter
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January 1, 1999

In appendix A of the classic paper "The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine", Brin and Page argue against advertising as a business model for their search engine (which later became Google)

Background reading
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April 1, 1998

"People rarely read Web pages word by word; instead, they scan the page, picking out individual words and sentences."

Background reading
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Nielsen, Jakob
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September 30, 1997

"Studies of how users read on the Web found that they do not actually read: instead, they scan the text. A study of five different writing styles found that a sample Web site scored 58% higher in measured usability when it was written concisely, 47% higher when the text was scannable, and 27% higher when it was written in an objective style instead of the promotional style used in the control condition and many current Web pages. Combining these three changes into a single site that was concise, scannable, and objective at the same time resulted in 124% higher measured usability."

Background reading
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Nielsen, Jakob; Morkes, John
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January 1, 1997

"This report provides a first look at the results of the National Adult Literacy Survey, a project funded by the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics and administered by Educational Testing Service, in collaboration with Westat, Inc. It provides the most detailed portrait that has ever been available on the condition of literacy in this nation -- and on the unrealized potential of its citizens."

Background reading
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Kirsch, Irwin S.; Jungeblut, Ann; Jenkins, Lynn; Kolstad, Andrew; Secretary, Richard W. Riley; Robinson, Sharon P.; Secretary, Assistant
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August 30, 1993

We analyze a sequential decision model in which each decision maker looks at the decisions made by previous decision makers in taking her own decision. [...] We then show that the decision rules that are chosen by optimizing individuals will be characterized by herd behavior.

Background reading
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Banerjee, Abhijit V.
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August 1, 1992

In this paper, Herb Simon introduces the idea that "the knowledge and the computational power of the decision maker are severely limited" and "we must distinguish between the real world and the actor’s perception of it and reasoning about it."

Background reading
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Simon, Herbert A.
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October 1, 1986